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violantedidonato.it Insights Abnormal Uterine Bleeding
Medical Knowledge Base · Clinical Gynecology

Abnormal Uterine Bleeding

Classification, diagnosis, and clinical approach to AUB

Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) affects approximately 9–14% of women globally and can present at all stages of gynecologic life. Proper classification — through the FIGO PALM-COEIN system — is the first step toward an appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic pathway.

Prof. Violante Di Donato
Updated: April 2026
Sapienza University of Rome

Definition

Abnormal uterine bleeding is a clinical condition that can present at all stages of gynecologic life, from adolescence to menopause. The term abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) defines any alteration from normal menstrual bleeding in terms of regularity, frequency, quantity, or duration, and also includes intermenstrual bleeding (IMB).

It is a common, sometimes debilitating problem affecting approximately 9–14% of women globally. AUB can have a significant impact on quality of life, psychophysical well-being, and general health. In some cases it is associated with symptoms such as discomfort, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and may be complicated by iron-deficiency anemia.

Causes

The causes of abnormal uterine bleeding may vary and include:

PALM-COEIN Classification System

The acronym PALM-COEIN identifies the classification system for abnormal uterine bleeding in non-pregnant women of reproductive age. This system was proposed by the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) in 2011 with the aim of improving the diagnostic and therapeutic classification of AUB, promoting a shared definition, more accurate history-taking, and appropriate use of diagnostic tests, thereby supporting individualized clinical decisions.

P — Polyp Abnormal tissue growth within the uterine cavity. Polyps are a common cause of AUB. In most cases they are benign, but in a minority they may contain premalignant or malignant changes. A — Adenomyosis Condition in which endometrial tissue is located within the myometrium, i.e., the uterine muscular wall. L — Leiomyoma Benign tumor of the uterine muscle (fibroid). M — Malignancy Malignant neoplasm of the endometrium or uterine cervix. C — Coagulation Condition that impairs the normal blood clotting capacity. It may result from hereditary disorders, pharmacologic therapies, or other systemic conditions. O — Ovulatory Alteration of ovulatory function. Ovulatory dysfunction is one of the most common causes of AUB. E — Endometrial Condition affecting the endometrium. It may be related to different clinical presentations, including endometrial hyperplasia and neoplasia. I — Iatrogenic Condition secondary to medical treatment: medications, surgical procedures, or radiotherapy. N — Not classified Condition not yet classifiable in any of the preceding categories.

The PALM-COEIN system is not a diagnostic tool per se, but is useful for guiding clinical reasoning, narrowing the possible causes of abnormal uterine bleeding, and defining an appropriate therapeutic pathway.

Treatment

Several treatment options are available, both medical and surgical. The therapeutic choice depends on the underlying cause of abnormal uterine bleeding, the patient's age, parity, potential comorbidities, the desire to preserve the uterus and fertility, and patient preferences.

Difference between spotting and abnormal bleeding

Spotting corresponds to a modest intermenstrual blood loss, which may also be physiologic, as sometimes occurs during the ovulatory phase, and generally does not require frequent pad changes. Abnormal bleeding, on the other hand, is heavier, irregular, unpredictable in onset, or associated with other clinical signs warranting further investigation.

Bleeding that requires pad changes every 1–2 hours should be considered excessive, especially if it persists for more than 7 days.

Patients with regular ovulatory cycles generally present recognizable associated manifestations, such as breast tenderness, increased mucoid vaginal secretions, or premenstrual symptoms. Cycles showing variations greater than 10 days from one month to the next are more frequently consistent with anovulation.

Most likely causes

In reproductive age

In postmenopause

Diagnoses not to miss

Priority diagnoses to exclude
  • Endometrial carcinoma or cervical carcinoma
  • Ectopic pregnancy in women of reproductive age
  • Coagulopathies, including von Willebrand disease and other platelet disorders

Post-coital bleeding

Post-coital bleeding may be associated with several conditions, some of which require active exclusion:

Postmenopausal bleeding: what to do

Any postmenopausal bleeding requires prompt evaluation aimed at excluding endometrial carcinoma, which presents with bleeding in over 90% of cases.

Recommended initial evaluation

  1. Esame pelvico per verificare l'eventuale origine del sanguinamento da cervice o vagina
  2. Transvaginal ultrasound oppure biopsia endometriale come esami di primo livello
    • Uno spessore endometriale ≤4 mm presenta un valore predittivo negativo >99% per carcinoma endometriale
    • Uno spessore >4 mm richiede approfondimento con biopsia endometriale
  3. Biopsia endometriale (preferibilmente mediante Pipelle) indicata in:
    • Spessore endometriale >4 mm
    • Sanguinamento persistente o ricorrente, anche con spessore endometriale ≤4 mm
    • Presenza di fattori di rischio elevati: obesità, estrogeni non bilanciati, diabete mellito tipo 2, PCOS, familiarità significativa
Evidence-Based Insights Diagnostic algorithm: postmenopausal bleeding

L'ecografia transvaginale è l'esame di primo livello nelle donne con sanguinamento postmenopausale. Lo spessore endometriale (SE) guida il successivo iter diagnostico. Schema adattato da: BGCS Clinical Pathway (Morrison, 2022) e ACOG (2018).

Postmenopausal bleeding Transvaginal ultrasound → Spessore Endometriale (SE) SE < 4 mm SE ≥ 4 mm Rassicurazione after pelvic examination If high risk (e.g., tamoxifen users): hysteroscopy and targeted biopsies per protocol Endometrial sampling If inadequate or failed → hysteroscopy Hysteroscopy and sampling per local protocol Adattato da: BGCS Clinical Pathway (Morrison, 2022) · ACOG Transvaginal Ultrasonography in Postmenopausal Bleeding (2018)

NPV: negative predictive value. An ET ≤4 mm has NPV >99% per carcinoma endometriale nelle donne in postmenopausa non in terapia ormonale sostitutiva.

Warning signs — immediate evaluation
  • Any postmenopausal bleeding
  • Bleeding requiring pad changes every 1–2 hours
  • Persistent bleeding despite medical therapy
  • Age ≥60 years associated with abnormal bleeding
  • Pelvic pain, abdominal distension, or early satiety: possible signs of advanced disease

Recommended diagnostic evaluation

Focused clinical history

Laboratory tests

Imaging

Endometrial biopsy indicated in

Ectopic pregnancy: exclusion

In women of reproductive age with irregular bleeding, ectopic pregnancy must always be excluded. A pregnancy test must be performed in all sexually active women with abdominal pain or vaginal bleeding, regardless of contraceptive history.

Diagnostic approach

La gravidanza di localizzazione sconosciuta (PUL, Pregnancy of Unknown Location) corrisponde a un test di gravidanza positivo in assenza di visualizzazione ecografica di una gravidanza intrauterina o extrauterina. Richiede ecografia transvaginale ripetuta, dosaggi seriali di beta-hCG ogni 48 ore e monitoraggio clinico ravvicinato.

Pattern di beta-hCG: l'incremento minimo atteso in 48 ore è del 49% per livelli iniziali di 3.000 mIU/mL. Valori in riduzione orientano verso una gravidanza non evolutiva, ma non escludono una gravidanza ectopica: la rottura tubarica può verificarsi anche con beta-hCG in diminuzione.

Evidence-Based Insights Focus on Ectopic Pregnancy — Diagnostic algorithm

L'algoritmo illustra il percorso diagnostico nella sospetta gravidanza ectopica non rotta, fondato su progesterone sierico e β-hCG quantitativo integrati con ecografia transvaginale. Adattato da Carson & Buster, NEJM 1993 [12] e ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 193, 2018 [11].

Serum progesterone + quantitative β-hCG
Progesterone ≥25 ng/ml
or
β-hCG ≥100.000 mIU/ml
Intrauterine pregnancy
viable
Progesterone >5 e <25 ng/ml
Transvaginal ultrasound
Ectopic pregnancy
Sacco >4 cm
Surgery
Sacco ≤4 cm
Methotrexate
Intrauterine pregnancy
Progesterone ≤5 ng/ml
or
β-hCG with abnormal trend
Curettage (D&C)
Villi obtained
by curettage
Complete
miscarriage
No villi
obtained
β-hCG ↓
Complete miscarriage
β-hCG ↑ or stable
Ectopic pregnancy
TV US
>4 cm
Surgery
≤4 cm
MTX
Adattato da: Carson & Buster, NEJM 1993 [12] · ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 193, 2018 [11] · MTX = Metotrexato · TV US = Transvaginal ultrasound

Gravidanza di localizzazione sconosciuta (PUL)

In caso di test positivo senza evidenza ecografica di gravidanza intrauterina o extrauterina, si definisce PUL (Pregnancy of Unknown Location). La gestione prevede ecografia transvaginale ripetuta, dosaggi seriali di β-hCG ogni 48 ore e stretto follow-up clinico.

  • Incremento minimo atteso del β-hCG in 48 ore: 49% per livelli iniziali di 3.000 mIU/mL
  • Valori stabili o in calo non escludono la gravidanza ectopica: la rottura tubarica può avvenire anche con hCG decrescente
  • La PUL richiede sempre monitoraggio ravvicinato fino alla risoluzione del caso
Medical Knowledge Base · Clinical Gynecology Ecografia Transvaginale PALM-COEIN Classification Oncologia Ginecologica Urgenza Clinica Biopsia Endometriale

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between spotting and abnormal uterine bleeding?

Lo spotting è una perdita ematica intermestruale di modesta entità, che può avere significato fisiologico — come accade talvolta in fase ovulatoria — e non richiede generalmente cambi frequenti di assorbente. Il sanguinamento anomalo, invece, è più abbondante, irregolare o imprevedibile nella comparsa, oppure si associa ad altri segni clinici che richiedono approfondimento.

Un sanguinamento che imponga il cambio dell'assorbente ogni 1–2 ore deve essere considerato eccessivo, soprattutto se persiste oltre 7 giorni. Cicli con variazioni superiori a 10 giorni da un mese all'altro orientano verso una disfunzione ovulatoria.

Rif.: [1, 3]

What are the most common causes of abnormal uterine bleeding?

Le cause variano in base all'età della paziente. In età riproduttiva, le più frequenti sono la disfunzione ovulatoria (particolarmente nelle adolescenti), il sanguinamento iatrogeno correlato a contraccettivi ormonali o terapia anticoagulante, polipi endometriali e fibromi uterini. Le alterazioni endocrine (PCOS, tireoide, iperprolattinemia) sono da escludere sistematicamente.

In postmenopause, endometrial atrophy is the most common cause, followed by endometrial carcinoma — present in approximately 9% of women with postmenopausal bleeding — and endometrial or cervical polyps. The FIGO PALM-COEIN system systematically classifies all possible etiologies in non-pregnant women of reproductive age.

Rif.: [1, 2, 4, 6]

When does abnormal uterine bleeding require urgent evaluation?

Any postmenopausal bleeding richiede valutazione tempestiva per escludere il carcinoma endometriale. In età fertile, un sanguinamento che imponga il cambio dell'assorbente ogni 1–2 ore, persista oltre 7 giorni o si associ a dolore pelvico, anemia o altri segni sistemici deve essere valutato senza ritardo.

Additional warning signs include: persistent bleeding despite medical therapy, age ≥60 years with menstrual abnormality, pelvic pain, abdominal distension, or early satiety as possible expressions of advanced disease.

Rif.: [1, 6, 9]

How is postmenopausal bleeding properly evaluated?

La valutazione iniziale prevede un esame pelvico per escludere origini cervicali o vaginali, seguito da ecografia transvaginale come esame di primo livello. Uno spessore endometriale (SE) ≤4 mm presenta un valore predittivo negativo >99% per carcinoma endometriale e consente, nella maggior parte dei casi, di rassicurare la paziente dopo l'esame pelvico.

Uno spessore >4 mm, un sanguinamento persistente o ricorrente — anche con SE ≤4 mm — o la presenza di fattori di rischio elevati (obesità, estrogeni non bilanciati, diabete mellito tipo 2, PCOS, familiarità significativa) richiedono biopsia endometriale, preferibilmente mediante Pipelle, per escludere neoplasia.

Rif.: [6, 7, 8]

How is ectopic pregnancy ruled out in cases of abnormal bleeding?

Quantitative beta-hCG is the first test to perform in all sexually active women of reproductive age with vaginal bleeding or abdominal pain, even with prior tubal ligation. Transvaginal ultrasound is the second step: an intrauterine pregnancy is identifiable at 5–6 weeks or with beta-hCG ≥2,500 mIU/mL.

In assenza di evidenza ecografica di gravidanza intrauterina con beta-hCG >3.500 mIU/mL, la probabilità di gravidanza ectopica è elevata. I dosaggi seriali ogni 48 ore sono fondamentali: un incremento atteso minimo in 48h è del 49% per hCG iniziale di 3.000 mIU/mL. Valori stabili o decrescenti non escludono la gravidanza ectopica, poiché la rottura tubarica può avvenire anche con hCG in calo.

Rif.: [10, 11, 12]

Which laboratory tests are indicated in AUB evaluation?

Pregnancy testing is mandatory in all sexually active women of reproductive age. First-level tests include TSH (to exclude thyroid dysfunction), prolactin to be confirmed fasting if elevated, and complete blood count in cases of heavy bleeding to assess for possible iron-deficiency anemia.

La biopsia endometriale è indicata nelle donne con fattori di rischio per iperplasia o carcinoma endometriale, nelle donne in premenopausa con età >45 anni e AUB persistente, in caso di sanguinamento postmenopausale persistente e in caso di mancata risposta alla terapia medica.

Rif.: [1, 4]

References 13 entries
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Abnormal uterine bleeding may have diverse causes and require a targeted diagnostic pathway. Prof. Di Donato evaluates each case individually, integrating the clinical history with the most appropriate instrumental examinations to define the cause and optimal treatment.

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Prof. Violante Di Donato
Associate Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology — Sapienza University of Rome
Gynecologic oncology surgeon, specialist in minimally invasive surgery and gynecologic oncology

This article is for informational and educational purposes only. It does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or therapeutic recommendation. All clinical decisions must be based on individual assessment by a specialist physician. © 2026 Prof. Violante Di Donato.